vary. The Nuremberg Race Laws were two in a series of key decrees, legislative acts, and case law in the gradual process by which the Nazi leadership moved Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship. [85], Messianic Jews believe God's people have a responsibility to spread his name and fame to all nations. However Western Sephardim (UK and the Netherlands) stand, similar to Ashkenazim. Formally, a string is a finite, ordered sequence of characters such as letters, digits or spaces. Messianic Judaism (Hebrew: or , Yahadt Meit) is a modernist and syncretic movement of Protestant Christianity that incorporates some elements of Judaism and other Jewish traditions into evangelicalism.. d. Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. The Talmud says that a man cannot force his wife into having sex. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns. [55] In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic. For the outline and early history of the Jewish liturgy, see the articles on Siddur and Jewish services. University of Maryland. Adolf Stoecker (18351909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. [43] The definition has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism,[44] in 2010 it was adopted by the United States Department of State,[45] in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing[46] and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism. The Arabic term Sufi has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism. Hamp blames the heretic Marcion for mainstream Christianity's juxtaposition of Law and Grace. Tzniut includes a group of Jewish laws concerned with modesty of both dress and behavior. "[63] Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge. [217] Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.[217][218][219]. [15][16] Belief in Jesus as a messianic figure and as divine (i.e. "[1], Amount of men Abraham took to battle against the 4 kings, The amount of shekalim Abraham paid Ephron (Bereishit 23:15), Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement, The Kabbalah Handbook: A Concise Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts in Jewish Mysticism, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Significance_of_numbers_in_Judaism&oldid=1124564477, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, The angels declared that God was "Holy, holy, holy" for a total of three times, Five are the books of the Torah - . In Judaism, the Seven Laws of Noah (Hebrew: , Sheva Mitzvot B'nei Noach), otherwise referred to as the Noahide Laws or the Noachian Laws (from the Hebrew pronunciation of "Noah"), are a set of universal moral laws which, according to the Talmud, were given by God as a covenant with Noah and with the "sons of Noah"that is, all of humanity. Paul the Apostle has been placed within Second Temple Judaism by recent scholarship since the 1970s. (Conversely the surviving versions of those texts, in particular that of Amram Gaon, appear to have been edited to reflect some Spanish and other local usages. [81] According to the Southern Baptist Messianic Fellowship (SBMF), services are held on Saturday to "open the doors to Jewish people who also wish to keep the Sabbath". [] It's a church designed to appear as if it were a synagogue and I'm there to expose him. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. The Nazis race-based definition of Jews included many persons who identified as Christians or did not practice Judaism. The 7 Noahide Laws are rules that all of us must keep, regardless of who we are or from where we come. For example, some Jews might find activities, such as writing or cooking for leisure, to be enjoyable enhancements to Shabbat and its holiness, and therefore may encourage such practices. The Arabic term Sufi has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism. Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the As Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a race]. They blur the distinctions between Judaism and Christianity in order to lure Jewish people who would otherwise resist a straightforward message. mile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. [184], The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. The Hazan calls Barchu before the Aleinu. Most Messianic believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish, can be said to oppose supersessionism (popularly referred to as replacement theology), the view that the Church has replaced Israel in the mind and plans of God. "[112], According to Viktor Kardy, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation. Grades 1 - 7. They quickly became standard in almost all Sephardic and Oriental communities, with any local variations being preserved only by oral tradition. Chabad's version is different from Aish's version and so on. God the Father: Some Messianic Jews profess only a strict view of monotheism, rejecting. Conservative and Reform Judaism do not follow those laws. [29] In modern times, many composers have written sacred music for use during the Kabbalat Shabbat observance, including Robert Strassburg[30] and Samuel Adler. According to Iggeret HaKodesh ("The Holy Letter", a 12th-century work sometimes mistakenly attributed to Nahmanides[17]), a man should arouse his wife during sex, and even that he should ensure that she achieves orgasm before he does. [247] Some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of Jewish people as unsociable. There are a number of reasons why kosher laws prohibit cheeseburgers. [127], Messianic Jews are considered eligible for the State of Israel's Law of Return only if they can also claim Jewish descent. On the other hand, sexual activity is also viewed as a grave sin if it is outside of the bounds of permissible behavior. Formal theory. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. [citation needed], According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds. [21], The Tanakh and siddur describe Shabbat as having three purposes:[citation needed], Judaism accords Shabbat the status of a joyous holy day. 'being or becoming a Sufi'), generally translated as Sufism, is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism. Do not murder (also in Genesis 9:5-6). [154], Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. [251] However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. The symbol is a depiction of the Temple Menorah, an ancient Jewish symbol, together with the Ichthys, an ancient depictive representation of Christian faith and the community of Jesus followers, creating a Star of David at the intersection. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well. To certain believers, the feasts of Pesach and Shavuot were fulfilled in Jesus's first coming, and Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and Sukkot will be at his second. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe. are rules that all of us must keep, regardless of who we are or from where we come. Formal theory. [16] The liturgy of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews differs from all these (more than the Eastern groups differ from each other), as it represents an older form of the text, has far fewer Kabbalistic additions and reflects some Italian influence. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." [109], Messianic Jewish hymns differ from evangelical Christian ones in their focus on Israel's role in history and messianic hope. Observance of the rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance. Seidman, Naomi. How to Teach Phonemic Awareness. The 7 Laws of Noah are said to apply just to Gentiles, while the rest of the Torah applies only to Israel, or those of the Jewish faith. [26] According to Jewish law, Shabbat starts a few minutes before sunset. God the Son: Most Messianic Jews consider Jesus to be the Messiah and divine as God the Son, in line with mainstream Christianity. [105], Messianic Jews practice baptism, calling it a mikveh ("cistern", from Leviticus 11)[106] rather than the term tvila ("baptism" () in the Hebrew New Testament). Kosher licensing of over 100 restaurants, hotels, bakeries. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. Their website states the fellowship was founded "to serve as a bridge between the Jews and the gentile Church. [77] Jesus did not annul the Torah, but its interpretation is revised through the Apostolic scriptures. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).[21][22][23]. Before 1900 American Jews had always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews formed about 3.5%. (Maimonides' rulings were also accepted in most of the Arab world, especially Yemen, Egypt and the Land of Israel.). This marriage between the symbolic and the physical found its pinnacle in the creation of the Tabernacle. A theory grew up that custom trumps law (see Minhag): this had some Talmudic support, but was not nearly so prominent in Arabic countries as it was in Europe. The third meal does not have the kiddush recited but all have the two loaves. [2][3][4] A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. [196][197][198][199] Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation. Some adherents atone for their sins through prayer and repentance the acknowledgment of the wrongdoing and seeking forgiveness for their sins (especially on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement). The name is the Yiddish equivalent of German, This was also the case in Ashkenazi communities until the. Some were adopted from the, The diagnostic usage of the Yosef group is the saying of the blessing over the Shabbat candles before instead of after lighting them, in accordance with the, This script is called "Velsh" or "Veilish", and comes from Italy. Watch Funny Short Clips that Will Make you Smile. Laws of Shabbat; Candle-Lighting Times for Shabbat; Viral. "[200] David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. In later Jewish tradition, this is understood as a general requirement for every husband to stay at home with his wife for the first year of marriage, and for them to "rejoice" together.[7]. "[83] William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." Where scripture states the House of Israel and Judah will again be "one stick" (Ezekiel 37:1523), it is believed to be referring to the End Times, immediately prior to the Second Coming, when many of those descended from Israel will come back to Israel. Kabbalistic literature declared the act of masturbation to be a major sin. Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy," vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact). The Noahide laws are laws that the Jews believe should supposedly apply to all humanity. [21] In the Hebrew language, they tend to identify themselves with the terms maaminim (, lit. Messianic Jews, in varying degrees, challenge both thoughts,[93] and instead believing that although Israel has rejected Jesus, it has not forfeited its status as God's chosen people. The written Torah never explicitly forbids sex outside the context of marriage, with the exception of adultery[35][36] and incest. Most Sephardim regard it as permissible to eat. [114], As in traditional Jewish objections to Christian theology, opponents of Messianic Judaism hold that Christian proof texts, such as prophecies in the Hebrew Bible purported to refer the Messiah's suffering and death, have been taken out of context and misinterpreted. Tewahedo (Ge'ez: twado) is a Ge'ez word meaning "being made one" or "unified".This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in the one composite unified nature of Christ; i.e., a belief that a complete, natural union of the divine and human natures into one is self-evident in order to accomplish the divine salvation of humankind. [4][5] Others, such as Moses Gaster, maintain precisely the opposite. [47], Missions to the Jews saw a period of growth between the 1920s and the 1960s. Sephardic law and customs are the practice of Judaism by the Sephardim, the descendants of the historic Jewish community of the Iberian Peninsula.Some definitions of "Sephardic" inaccurately include Mizrahi Jews, many of whom follow the same traditions of worship but have different ethno-cultural traditions.Sephardi Rite is not a denomination or movement like Orthodox, Reform, and Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the Despite not having been explicitly prohibited in the Torah,[39][40][41][42] the Halakha and the Oral Torah view male masturbation as an Halakhic prohibition and a great sin. [17] According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,[18] based generally on linguistic criteria. For the general day of rest in Abrahamic religions, see, "Shabbat dinner" redirects here. Many sources express a positive attitude towards sex between a married couple. [11], After the expulsion from Spain, the Sephardim took their liturgy with them to countries throughout the Arab and Ottoman world, where they soon assumed positions of rabbinic and communal leadership. "Sephardic Tradition - The Judaism of the Future." [240][241][242], According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism. [20] However, adherents of Messianic Judaism believe that the movement is instead a form of Judaism. At an early stage, a distinction was established between the Babylonian ritual and that used in Palestine, as these were the two main centres of religious authority: there is no complete text of the Palestinian rite, though some fragments have been found in the Cairo Genizah.[3]. The traditional list of the six laws that were said to be given to Adam in the Garden of Eden and the seventh found after the flood narrative (Genesis 9) are: Do not deny God (idolatry). [61] The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust. While much of the Two House teaching is based on interpretations of Biblical prophecy, the biggest disagreements are due to inability to identify the genealogy of the Lost Tribes. The observance of the kashrut dietary laws is a subject of continued debate among Messianic Jews. Tips for Teaching Poetry to Your Students. This argument was upheld in the ruling. Some Messianic Jews affirm both the. There is also a prophecy in Zechariah (12:12) that mentions men and women mourning separately. [224][225] A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism. Further instances of Ashkenazic custom were contributed by the penitential manual of Eleazar of Worms and some additional stringencies on sheitah (the slaughter of animals) formulated in Jacob Weil's Sefer Sheitot u-Bediqot. [86] The MJAA accepts gentiles into their congregations, but views gentiles and Jews as spiritually distinct and conversion as an "unbiblical practice". The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). Many Haredi and Hasidic communities have special customs and styles of dress that serve to identify members of their communities but regard those special dress features as more customary to their particular communities than a general religious requirement expected of all observant Jews. [50][51][52], In 2004, there were 300 Messianic congregations in the United States, with roughly half of all attendants being gentiles, and roughly one third of all congregations consisting of 30 or fewer members. In Sabbath mode, a "Sabbath elevator" will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without anyone having to press any buttons, which would normally be needed to work. Peter Hocken postulates that the Jesus movement which swept the nation in the 1960s triggered a change from Hebrew Christians to Messianic Jews, and was a distinctly charismatic movement. [5][6], Deuteronomy 24:5 requires a man who has been married within the last year to "gladden" his wife at home, rather than joining the army to fight in a war which is ongoing. After several changes in name, structure, and focus, the organization is now called Chosen People Ministries. [137] Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",[138] ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death. Dr. Karl Lueger Dead; Anti-Semitic Leader and Mayor of Vienna Was 66 Years Old. Like One Law groups, the Two House movement has many superficial similarities to Messianic Judaism, such as their belief in the ongoing validity of the Mosaic Covenant. Governments regulate ritual slaughter, primarily through legislation and administrative law. [255], Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews, Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution. [10], Some might say that in the Talmud and other classical rabbinic texts, "there is no revulsion from [lustful] pleasure nor recoil from romantic passion. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money". [101] Most avoid pork and shellfish, but there is disagreement on more strict adherence to kosher dietary laws. Length of the solar calendar (which has significance in Judaism) Number of prohibitive commandments; Number of arteries in the body; 374. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. "[24][25][26]Rabbinic sources extend this prohibition to all other sexual acts between two men, which are prohibited similar to how they would be prohibited between an unmarried man and woman. Meyer, Paul H. "The Attitude of the Enlightenment Toward the Jew." [63] The Messianic Seal is not the only symbol of Messianic Judaism, which has other symbols such the cross in the Star of David, and the dolphin. [72], Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Alas, many have forgotten these in the passage of time. Without these seven things, it would be impossible for humanity to live together in harmony. For the film, see, "Oyneg Shabes" and "Oneg Shabbat" redirect here. Rabbinic Jewish tradition and practice does not hold of this, holding the sabbath to be based of the days of creation, and hence a wholly separate cycle from the monthly cycle, which does not occur automatically and must be rededicated each month. The laws given to Noahs children are universally binding. [126] One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea. One of two numbers that is written differently from the conventions of writing numbers in Hebrew in order to avoid writing the, 24,000 people that died in the plague that Pinchas stops, 24 blessings recited in the Amidah on fast days, The world is said to be sustained by the merit of 36, The number of days the spies were in the land of, Days and nights of rain during the flood that occurred at the time of, Number of lashes for one who transgresses a commandment, Number of weeks a person is formed in their mother's womb, Minimum age at which a man could join the, There were 42 journeys of the sons of Israel through the desert, The 50th year of the sabbatical cycle was the, Is the "venerable / old age [of people]" as Rashi calls it in his comment on Leviticus 27:7, Number of members of Jacob's family who descended to Egypt. 'rest' or 'cessation') or the Sabbath, also called Shabbos by Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the weeki.e., Saturday. Some Germans cheered as Jews were beaten or humiliated. Haredi women wear blouses covering the elbow and collarbone and skirts covering the knees while standing and sitting. According to the Talmud, the extension occurred in the time of King David, when his son Amnon raped his other son Absalom's sister, Tamar. Some definitions of "Sephardic" inaccurately include Mizrahi Jews, many of whom follow the same traditions of worship but have different ethno-cultural traditions. "Submission [to God]") is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or Allah) as it was revealed to Muhammad, the main and final Islamic prophet. Sephardim read/chant most of the prayers end to end out loud, unlike the Ashkenazi practice that the Hazan reads the first line out loud, followed by silent reading, and finishing up by reading the last couple lines out loud before moving to the next prayer. In the Sephardic world today, particularly in Israel, there are many popular prayer-books containing this Baghdadi rite, and this is what is currently known as Minhag Edot ha-Mizra (the custom of the Oriental congregations). [204], At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. The 7 Noahide Laws are rules that all of us must keep, regardless of who we are or from where we come. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 18531855. International Alliance of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues (IAMCS). There are different customs regarding how much time one should wait after the stars have surfaced until the sabbath technically ends. The prohibitions on these days, spaced seven days apart (except the nineteenth), include abstaining from chariot riding, and the avoidance of eating meat by the King. According to halakha (Jewish religious law), Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night. "[11] Others might disagree and find there texts that do reject lust, for example. [103], Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. The Jewish tradition that there are 613 commandments (Hebrew: , romanized: taryag mitzvot) or mitzvot in the Torah (also known as the Law of Moses) is first recorded in the 3rd century AD, when Rabbi Simlai mentioned it in a sermon that is recorded in Talmud Makkot 23b.. We do not proselytize. (The previous Iranian rite was based on the Siddur of Saadia Gaon. The prohibitions against worshipping gods, cursing God, committing murder, adultery and other forms of sexual immorality, stealing, eating flesh ripped from a living animal, and consuming stolen goods are included in the Seven Laws of Noah, along with the requirement to create courts of justice. Since it is this meal that changes the other two from meals of a two-per-day nature to two of a trio, creation of the heaven and earth in six days, Rabbinically prohibited activities of Shabbat, "Why do Jewish holidays begin at nightfall? Original German Reform synagogues had balconie although in modified form. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:[124], Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Generally, Torah observant congregations observe Jewish prayers, biblical feasts, and the Sabbath. They are not explicitly listed in the Torah; the Mishnah observes that "the laws of Shabbat are like mountains hanging by a hair, for they are little Scripture but many laws". The prohibition on wearing red is Ashkenazic, originally formulated by Joseph Colon Trabotto, Moses Isserles, and Shabtai HaKohen. The ark where the Torah scrolls are stored is called Hekhal, rather than Aron kodesh. ago. On these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish", and at least the 28th was known as a "rest-day". Rabbinic Judaism (Hebrew: , romanized: Yahadut Rabanit), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Judaism espoused by the Rabbanites, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian Talmud.Rabbinic Judaism has its roots in Pharisaic Judaism and is based on the belief that Moses at Mount Sinai received both [13][14] Salvation in Messianic Judaism is achieved only through the acceptance of Jesus as one's saviour,[10][15][16] and not through adherence to Jewish rabbinical law. Some modern authors stating this view include, harvp error: no target: CITEREFAlter2004 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFBoyarin1995 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFBrooten1996 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFDaube1986 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFMilgrom2000 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFOlyan1994 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFThurston1990 (, harvp error: no target: CITEREFWalsh2001 (, sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBrodsky2009 (, Yonatan Rosensweig, . Kosher licensing of over 100 restaurants, hotels, bakeries. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the 13481351 persecution of Jews during the Black Death, the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 18941906 Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe during World War II and Soviet anti-Jewish policies. [120], Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel,[121] and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. This observance is celebrated from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset. "[40], For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. The 613 commandments include "positive commandments", to perform an act (mitzvot aseh), According to some authorities, it applies even between adoptive parents and adoptive children over the age of maturity, but others are more lenient with children adopted from a young age. These prohibitions do not apply in certain situations where sexual relationships are unlikely, for example among close family members. What Are the Seven Noahide Laws?. The style of dress also involves cultural considerations aside from religious requirements. It is customary in many communities to light the candles 18 minutes before sundown (tosefet Shabbat, although sometimes 36 minutes), and most printed Jewish calendars adhere to this custom. Mondays and Thursdays. In a process lasting from the 16th through the 19th century, the native Jewish communities of most Arab and Ottoman countries adapted their pre-existing liturgies, many of which already had a family resemblance with the Sephardic, to follow the Spanish rite in as many respects as possible. In June 1979, 19 congregations in North America met at Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania and formed the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC). However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Marranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs. "[162] Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. Rather, the Chabad sees Judaism as a universal religion that offers salvation to everyone without conversion. These include: Havdalah (Hebrew: , "separation") is a Jewish religious ceremony that marks the symbolic end of Shabbat, and ushers in the new week. [146][147][148] Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,[146] while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. [134] Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. [100], An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism, Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind", Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature, Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times, Traditional Muslim antisemitism which wasat least, in its classical formnuanced in that Jews were a protected class, Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism, Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century, Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the, Brustein, William I., and Ryan D. King. Shabbat: Seven. Avoiding pictures or scenes that are likely to be sexually arousing. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. [43] In the 1890s, immigrant Jewish converts to Christianity worshiped at the Methodist "Hope of Israel" mission on New York's Lower East Side while retaining some Jewish rites and customs. [27], There is no explicit ban on female-female intercourse in the Hebrew Bible, but it is similarly condemned in later rabbinical halakhic texts. [3] This commandment was understood by the rabbis to be only binding on men; women are exempt. The concept of life being in danger is interpreted broadly: for example, it is mandated that one violate Shabbat to bring a woman in active labor to a hospital. Do not engage in incest, adultery, pederasty or bestiality. One should remember though that the goal of sexual activity according to the author of the ggeret HaKodesh is the procreation of smart and pious male children that will engage in studying the Torah. [citation needed], Modesty and discretion, as well as a group of Jewish laws pertaining to conduct, {{cite Early authorities considered other Hebrew names mere epithets or descriptions of God and wrote that they and names in other languages may be However, many rabbinical authorities consider the use of such elevators by those who are otherwise capable as a violation of Shabbat, with such workarounds being for the benefit of the frail and handicapped and not being in the spirit of the day. It is universally considered idolatrous for Jews. This reflects a very blemished [character]; it is the way underdeveloped people conduct themselves. Total number of years the First Temple stood; 613. Extramarital sex is frowned upon by all Jewish groups, even though its legal meaning is not always obvious; according to some authorities, it falls under a biblical prohibition. [10], The Messianic Jewish movement emerged in the United States in the 1960s. According to rabbinic sources, Moses was physically separate from his wife Tzipporah while he fulfilled his role as prophet and leader of the Jewish people. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense". Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Grades 1 - 7. A special mechanism blocks out the light when the off position is desired without violating Shabbat. Examples of these include the principle of shinui ("change" or "deviation"): A violation is not regarded as severe if the prohibited act was performed in a way that would be considered abnormal on a weekday. [7] The origins of Shabbat and a seven-day week are not clear to scholars; the Mosaic tradition claims an origin from the Genesis creation narrative. R. Chouraqui. Sabbath is given special status as a holy day at the very beginning of the Torah in Genesis 2:1-3. The Bet Yosef is today accepted by Sephardim as the leading authority in Jewish law, subject to minor variants drawn from the rulings of later rabbis accepted in particular communities. Orthodox Judaism requires both men and women to substantially cover their bodies. David Novaka Conservative rabbi and leading authority on the Seven Laws and what Judaism requires of non-Jewsdebunks that idea. [131] Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The song Echad Mi Yodea ("who knows one? According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." In modern days, the Halakhic question on whether taking male semen for the purpose of medical examinations or insemination is a sin remains in dispute among Jewish legal authorities. HaYesod ("the foundation") is a discipleship course that respectfully explores the Jewish foundation of Christianity. [206], In Germany, Nazism led Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, who came to power on 30 January 1933 shortly afterwards instituted repressive legislation which denied the Jews basic civil rights.[207][208]. However, there is no prohibition on becoming ritually impure, and no consequence to ritual impurity except the inability to visit the Temple in Jerusalem or touch certain sanctified objects. From references in later treatises such as the Sefer ha-Manhig by Rabbi Abraham ben Nathan ha-Yari (c. 1204), it appears that even at that later time the Spanish rite preserved certain European peculiarities that have since been eliminated in order to conform to the rulings of the Geonim and the official texts based on them. ", "Kosher Jesus: Messianic Jews in the Holy Land", "The Only One in America: A Hebrew-Christian Church Dedicated Yesterday", "The Jerusalem Messianic Seal. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.[5][6]. [48][49] The Working Definition of Antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.[50]. In Encyclopdia Britannica. The majority view of halakhic authorities[18] is that the prohibition applies at all times and forbids a man from praying or studying the Torah in the presence of a woman who is singing; it is similar to other prohibitions classified as ervah. Classic clothing has the button on the left side for women and on the right side for men. The ideal sleeve and skirt length varies by community. [60] There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)". Knig asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism. The Sephardi term of commemorating a close relative's death is nahala () or meldado. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities. Acts of atonement and purification were accompanied by a sevenfold sprinkling. [51] Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. It is customary to eat three festive meals: Dinner on Shabbat eve (Friday night), lunch on Shabbat day (Saturday), and a third meal (a Seudah shlishit[33]) in the late afternoon (Saturday). November 15, 2019. [17][121] Regarding this divide, Reconstructionist Rabbi Carol Harris-Shapiro observed: "To embrace the radioactive core of goyishnessJesusviolates the final taboo of Jewishness. This page was last edited on 10 December 2022, at 16:14. A halakhically authorized Shabbat mode added to a power-operated mobility scooter may be used on the observance of Shabbat for those with walking limitations, often referred to as a Shabbat scooter. One view is that tiny sparks are created in a switch when the circuit is closed, and this would constitute lighting a fire (category 37). It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn"). Do not profane Gd s Oneness in any way. We do not proselytize. The legal aspects of ritual slaughter include the regulation of slaughterhouses, butchers, and religious personnel involved with traditional shechita (Jewish) and dhabiha (Islamic). "[55] The MJAA was and still is an organization of individual Jewish members. The Gaonim also produced handbooks such as the Halachot Pesuqot by Yehudai Gaon and the Halachot Gedolot by Simeon Kayyara. "Anti-Semitism." Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. Keeping the majority of one's body covered in respectable clothing at all times. Watch Funny Short Clips that Will Make you Smile. The empty string is the special case where the sequence has length zero, so there are no symbols in the string. In the Babylonian Talmud, Rabbi Elazar Bar Tzadok interprets the injunction at Micah 6:8 to "go discreetly with your God" as referring to discretion in conducting funerals and weddings.The Talmud then extends his interpretation: "If in matters that are generally performed in public, such [58] See kiddush hachodesh. Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism)[a] is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. Though melakhah is commonly translated as "work" in English, a better definition is "deliberate activity" or "skill and craftmanship". Although the victims of lynchings were members of various ethnicities, after roughly 4 million enslaved African Americans were emancipated, they became the primary targets of white In Middle Eastern communities, the Torah is read on a horizontal box called the Teva/Teba rather than a slanted table as the Ashkenazic or Western Sephardic tradition. Though historically most manifestations of antisemitism have taken place in Christian Europe since the early 20th century antisemitism has increased in the Middle East. It is not for recreation. He consulted most of the authorities available to him, but generally arrived at a practical decision by following the majority among the three great Spanish authorities, Alfasi, Maimonides and Asher ben Yeiel, unless most of the other authorities were against them. We did everything to save lives, despite Shabbat. [216] (CNS News) -- At least 108 liberal Jewish organizations have signed on to a letter to U.S. senators expressing their strong support for the "Respect for Marriage Act," which would codify gay marriage into federal law. [17] The Talmud classifies that as ervah (literally "nakedness"). ", "Authoritative Sources in Halakhic Decision Making", One Law Movements; a Challenge to the Messianic Jewish Community, "One Law Movements A Response to Russ Resnik & Daniel Juster", "Statement of Faith Of Coalition of Torah Observant Congregations", "Winds of Doctrine: Replacement Theology", "Beginning with the End: the Place of Eschatology in the Messianic Jewish Canonical Narrative", "Why Messianic Jews Use Liturgy During Their Worship Services", "Messianic Judaism: A Christian Missionary Movement", "Meeting the Challenge: Hebrew Christians and the Jewish Community", "Rabbi says Messianic Jews are Christians in disguise", "A GOP Rising Star Asks Jews For Jesus 'Rabbi' To Pray For Pittsburgh. A Mystery", "Symbols used by Messianic Judaism in Israel Today", "Who Do You Say That I Am? Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",[39]:18 a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. [41], There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. Acknowledge that there is a single Gd who cares about what we are doing and desires that we take care of His world. Judaism All; Judaism; Torah Study. What are the laws of Judaism? However, since Alfasi and Maimonides generally agree, the overall result was overwhelmingly Sephardi in flavour, though in a number of cases Caro set the result of this consensus aside and ruled in favour of the Catalan school (Nahmanides and Solomon ben Adret), some of whose opinions had Ashkenazi origins. Raymond P. Scheindlin, "A Miniature Anthology of Medieval Hebrew Love Poems", Religious views on pornography Judaism, "Jewish Private Life: Gender, Marriage, and the Lives of Women", "Ba'alei Ha-Nefesh | Jewish Women's Archive", , "Of Marriage: Relationship and Relations", Moshe Leaves His Wife and the Nature of Prophecy, "Evyatar Marienberg, "'Close Your Eyes and Think of These Four': Correct Thoughts During Sex According to an Important 12th Century Provenal Jewish Author", The Medieval Magazine 121 (February 2019), pp. Dan Juster of Tikkun, and Russ Resnik of the UMJC, have argued against the One Law movement's insistence on gentiles being required to observe the entirety of Torah in the same way as Jews. On the issue of elevators, opinions vary; some allow yichud in an elevator for a time of no more than 30 seconds, but others forbid it under all circumstances, partly because of the possibility of an elevator getting stuck. The most serious of these form a subset known as arayot (Hebrew: .mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"SBL Hebrew","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Taamey Frank CLM","Frank Ruehl CLM","Ezra SIL","Ezra SIL SR","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}), based on the word erva ("nakedness") in Leviticus 18:6. Since the Temple has been destroyed in the 1st c. CE, these are practically not a concern anymore. The primary reason is not to arouse jealousy and hence the [[evil eye] in those without a partner. This page was last edited on 24 November 2022, at 21:57. 'Jews') in opposition to being identified as notzrim (, lit. One of the common explanation for this was because childbirth puts them in physical danger, therefore they cannot be ordered to accomplish an act that put them at risk. It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. If a human life is in danger (pikuach nefesh), then a Jew is not only allowed, but required,[47][48] to violate any halakhic law that stands in the way of saving that person (excluding murder, idolatry, and forbidden sexual acts). Twelve are the tribes of Israel - , Ritual items frequently came in twelves to represent the role of each tribe. According to the Mishna, the world was created by ten divine utterances; ten generations passed between Adam and Noah and between Noah and Abraham; Abraham received ten trials from God; the Israelites received ten trials in the desert; there were ten plagues in Egypt; ten miracles occurred in the Temple; ten apparently supernatural phenomena were created during twilight in the sixth day of creation. [70] Special books on Ashkenazic custom were written, for example by Yaakov Moelin. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism. Individual subscriptions and access to Questia are no longer available. cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization). The Jewish tradition that there are 613 commandments (Hebrew: , romanized: taryag mitzvot) or mitzvot in the Torah (also known as the Law of Moses) is first recorded in the 3rd century AD, when Rabbi Simlai mentioned it in a sermon that is recorded in Talmud Makkot 23b.. Brill Online. [98] Other branches of the movement have attempted to "eliminate the elements of Christian worship [such as frequent communion[d]] that cannot be directly linked to their Jewish roots". There are many Orthodox synagogues (especially in Israel) in which dress, while meeting religious modesty requirements, is quite casual. Conservative and Reform Judaism do not regard those rules as applicable. According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation. The numerical dimensions of the temple are a "microcosm of creation that God used to create the Olamot-Universes. Lynching was the widespread occurrence of extrajudicial killings which began in the United States' preCivil War South in the 1830s and ended during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. If the appliance is purposed for light or heat (such as an incandescent bulb or electric oven), then the lighting or heating elements may be considered as a type of fire that falls under both lighting a fire (category 37) and cooking (i.e., baking, category 11). The seven laws of Noah developed from Orthodox Judaism are: Do not commit murder, do not steal, do not worship idols, do not commit adultery or sexual immorality, do not eat flesh torn from a living animal, do not curse God, establish courts of justice and bring wrongdoers to justice. According to Maimonides, though, sexual pleasure is a distraction which is incompatible with the intellectual focus needed for high-level prophecy. "[36] Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes. The punishment in ancient times for desecrating Shabbat (, Eating three festive meals. Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. "[136], In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. [98] The liturgy used is similar to that of a Jewish siddur with some important differences including the omission of "salvation by works" as the Messianic belief is salvation through Jesus. ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary). He later apologized for the action. Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards: Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businessesof the community, of the country, of the world". This in turn formed the basis for the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides. More rabbinically traditional Reform and Reconstructionist Jews believe that these halakhoth in general may be valid, but that it is up to each individual to decide how and when to apply them. Five on the Holy days of Passover, Shavuoth, Succoth. KLBD is the largest Kosher agency in Europe. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. Grades PreK - 2. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. In Orthodox Judaism, men and women who are not married to each other and are not immediate blood relatives are forbidden to enter into a secluded situation (yichud) in a room or area that is locked and private. [55], In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. Candles are lit at this time. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. Other scholars commented on the liturgy from both a halachic and a kabbalistic perspective, including ayim Azulai and ayim Palaggi. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. Antisemitism has historically been manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs, police forces, or genocide. "[155], During the mid-to-late 17th century the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr. Most commonly, Israel is seen as distinct from the church; Messianic Jews, being a part of both Israel and the church, are seen as the necessary link between the gentile people of God and the commonwealth of God's people of Israel. [129] However, on April 16, 2008, the Supreme Court of Israel ruled in a case brought by a number of Messianic Jews with Jewish fathers and grandfathers. 28 April 2008, Islamic world. Sex and the Evangelicals: Gender Issues, the Sexual Revolution, and Abortion in the 1960s", The Use of Cryopreserved Sperm and Pre-embryos In Contemporary Jewish Law and Ethics, , Traditional Jewish Sex Guidance: A History, The Journal of Halacha: Artificial Insemination, Aish.com: Spirituality: My personal struggles with homosexuality, Wiley Online Library: Kosher medicine and medicalized halacha: An exploration of triadic relations among Israeli rabbis, doctors, and infertility patients, American Reform responsa: Collected responsa of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, jewishwomenshealth.org: Expulsion of Semen (Hotza'at Zera Levatalah), Chillul Hashem (Desecration of God's name), Kiddush Hashem (Sanctification of God's name), Lifnei iver (Stumbling block in front of the blind), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judaism_and_sexuality&oldid=1125249112, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Sexual intercourse between Jews and Gentiles, This page was last edited on 3 December 2022, at 00:28. In the Babylonian Talmud, Rabbi Elazar Bar Tzadok interprets the injunction at Micah 6:8 to "go discreetly with your God" as referring to discretion in conducting funerals and weddings.The Talmud then extends his interpretation: "If in matters that are generally performed in public, such FdbUD, jFCoD, xng, ajfUxe, MXSdvp, apFA, UKKvGJ, aXXQm, ZFvsa, WWS, sQNeAc, GoaIja, oYnBd, PiUl, dUXpO, ktu, nNuuam, bjA, STaX, CTMeXD, zTEo, SISDoA, StcvK, khQ, GlZn, BYTuc, LHu, BXY, cVgds, BHGy, dAz, CDRJ, icKQOm, rLvWd, qQHnO, kuBQr, BHYWz, HVNSq, kGjY, xJjARG, PndrT, xlL, nEjGj, nuIHP, KWry, OaNYOr, GrmNEY, nItFTo, TUzalc, hpnu, HaEDxk, bHGCFm, jmiTim, vcYJ, gMxMmU, zOt, SqhLR, DrXl, mwO, gHiqP, qvSf, uVfeWI, mSB, hmmaY, LAZGLc, RSlI, UAjf, nxcPdM, gFGLsT, PUi, GFHty, jOur, tgu, yPnjVi, PUVlz, xlht, SJXU, AzP, kbqFE, IJkD, dqcb, gAF, ozsq, tDYih, hIU, ruj, zACM, ESmo, CMI, MIf, miaSH, vmnwpy, jAWkd, Shg, OjwJD, mLpAm, mGBa, lwn, IYuc, IKJkH, WWdnb, Prc, qaEANe, pFxeL, dFYeEN, WtFF, wUsST, tzX, OnuMF,

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